1532年11月的一天，新大陆和旧世界激烈碰撞 One day in November, 1532, the New World and the old world collided
168名西班牙人袭击了秘鲁高地的 168 Spaniards attacked the imperial army of the Incas
印加帝国军队。 in the highlands of Peru.
这天结束之前，他们屠杀了7000人， Before the day was out, they had massacred 7,000 people,
控制了印加帝国。 and taken control of the Inca Empire.
在这个过程中没有一个西班牙人丧生 Not a single Spanish life was lost in the process.
为什么新旧世界间的力量如此不平衡？ Why was the balance of power so uneven between Old World and New?
为什么在接下来的几个世纪里， And why, in the centuries that followed,
欧洲人征服了全球那么多地方？ were Europeans the ones who conquered so much of the globe?
这些问题令贾里德·戴蒙德教授着迷 These are questions that fascinate Professor Jared Diamond.
他在寻求了解控制力的根源， He is on a quest to understand the roots of power,
在最不可能的地方寻找线索。 searching for clues in the most unlikely places.
他提出了很有独创性的理论 He's developed a highly original theory
是土地本身决定了输赢： that what separates the winners from the losers is the land itself:
地理条件 Geography.
是大陆的形状， It was the shape of the continents,
它们的农作物和动物 their crops and animals
让一些文化繁荣，而另一些则落后。 that allowed some cultures to flourish, while others were left behind.
但是，这种世界观是否能够揭示1532年的事件呢？ But can this way of seeing the world shed light on the events of 1532?
地理因素如何解释枪炮、病菌和钢铁 How can geography explain the conquest of the world
对世界的征服？ by guns, germs and steel?
第二部：征服 Titles: Episode 2: Conquest
两年来，一群西班牙征服者 For two years, a band of Spanish conquistadors
一直在寻找黄金和荣耀 has been traveling in search of gold and glory.
他们不是职业军人，而是雇佣兵和冒险家， They're not professional soldiers, but mercenaries and adventurers,
由退休的陆军上尉弗朗西斯科·皮萨罗领带队。 led by a retired army captain, Francisco Pizarro.
他已在中美洲的殖民地发了财。 He's already made a fortune for himself in the colonies of Central America.
现在他带着手下向南，进入未知的地域。 Now he's taking his men south, into unknown territory.
他们是首批登上安第斯山脉的欧洲人， They are the first Europeans to have climbed the Andes,
并且冒险深入南美洲大陆 and ventured this far into the continent of South America.
旅行时他们发现了大型本土文明的证据 As they travel, they find evidence of a large native civilization.
他们已经到达强大印加帝国的边缘。 They've reached the edge of the mighty Inca Empire.
对印第安人和西班牙人来说，任何遭遇都是文化的冲突。 For Indians and Spaniards alike, any encounter is a clash of cultures.
这些印第安人从未见过白人， These Indians have never seen white men before,
也不知道他们所代表的威胁。 and have no idea of the threat they represent.
他们无法想象，几天之内， They can't imagine that within a few days,
这些陌生人会颠覆他们的世界 these strangers will turn their world upside down.
到了15世纪30年代，印加帝国幅员辽阔 By the 1530s, the Inca Empire was enormous.
它沿着安第斯山脉延伸， It stretched along the length of the Andes,
从现代的厄瓜多尔到智利中部，绵延2500英里。 from modern-day Ecuador to central Chile, a distance of 2,500 miles.
但就在北面500英里处， But just 500 miles to the north
中美洲和加勒比殖民地 began the colonies of Central America and the Caribbean
成为了西班牙帝国的宝贵财产。 prized possessions of the Spanish empire.
当时，西班牙国王控制了三分之一欧洲大陆， At the time, the Spanish king controlled a third of mainland Europe,
而西班牙才成为统一的国家， but Spain itself had only recently become a unified state,
刚刚战胜了伊斯兰摩尔人700年的统治。 having fought off 700 years of occupation by Islamic Moors.
它还是一个乡村型社会 It was still a rural society.
征服者大多来自该国中部的村庄和小城镇 Most of the conquistadors came from villages and small towns in the heart of the country;
类似皮萨罗成长的特鲁希略小镇 towns like Trujillo, where Pizarro grew up.
他童年的大部分时间都在这里度过， He spent much of his childhood here,
在附近的田地里当猪倌 working as a swineherd in the fields nearby.
今天他作为一个伟大的战士而被铭记 Today he's remembered as a great warrior.
他的雕像占据了特鲁希略的主要广场 His statue dominates the main square in Trujillo,
他的家已经变成了博物馆 and his family home has been turned into a museum.
贾里德·戴蒙德来到这里探索征服者的世界， Jared Diamond has come here to explore the world of the conquistadors,
了解他们成功的秘诀。 and understand the secret of their success.
这是弗朗西斯科·皮萨罗， This is Francisco Pizarro,
就是这个西班牙人征服了新大陆最强大的国家，印加帝国， a Spaniard who conquered the most powerful state in the New World, the Inca Empire.
为什么皮萨罗及其部下征服了印加帝国，而非相反呢？ Why did Pizarro and his men conquer the Incas instead of the other way round?
这似乎是个简单的问题 It seems like a simple question.
答案并不明显 The answer isn't immediately obvious.
毕竟，皮萨罗是个相当普通的人， After all, Pizarro started out as a rather ordinary person,
而特鲁希略也是一个相当普通的城镇 and Trujillo here is a rather ordinary town.
是什么赋予了皮萨罗及其部下如此巨大的力量？ So what is it that gave Pizarro and his men this enormous power?
为什么我对皮萨罗的征服者如此感兴趣？ Why am I so interested in Pizarro's conquistadors?
因这是欧洲人征服世界的一个非常成功的例子。 Because their story is such a grimly successful example of European conquest.
30年来我一直在探索征服的模式。 And for 30 years I've been exploring patterns of conquest.
贾里德·戴蒙德是加州大学洛杉矶分校的教授。 Jared Diamond is a professor at UCLA in Los Angeles.
但他的大部分研究都是在巴布亚新几内亚完成的。 But most of his fi eldwork has been done in Papua New Guinea.
他在那里的经历激励他去探索现代社会不平等的根源。 His time there inspired him to explore the roots of inequality in the modern world.
去理解为什么有些人能够支配和征服其他人。 To understand why some people have been able to dominate and conquer others.
回顾几千年来， Looking back thousands of years,
他认为农业是一个文化巨大的开端， he argues that farming gave some cultures an enormous head start,
那些有幸拥有最高产农作物和动物的人 and those who were lucky enough to have the most productive crops and animals
成为最高产的农民。 became the most productive farmers.
农业最早在中东一个被称为新月沃土的地区发展起来。 Agriculture first developed in a part of the Middle East known as the Fertile Crescent.
随着时间的推移，农作物和动物从新月沃土 Over time, crops and animals from the Fertile Crescent
蔓延到北非和欧洲， spread into North Africa and Europe,
在那里引发了文明的爆炸。 where they triggered an explosion of civilization.
到了16世纪，欧洲的农场的主要家畜 By the 16th Century, European farms were dominated
都来自新月沃土地区。 by livestock animals that had come from the Fertile Crescent.
没有欧洲本土原产的。 None were native to Europe.
它们提供的不仅仅是肉食。 They provided more than just meat.
也是牛奶、羊毛、皮革和肥料的来源。 They were a source of milk and wool, leather and manure.
最关键的是，它们提供了肌肉力量。 And crucially, they provided muscle power.
把马或牛套在犁上 Harnessed to a plough, a horse or an ox
可以改变农田的生产力。 could transform the productivity of farmland.
欧洲的农民能够生产更多的粮食来供养更多的人， European farmers were able to grow more food to feed more people,
这样就能建立更大、更复杂的社会。 who could then build bigger and more complex societies.
在新大陆，没有马和牛进行农耕。 In the New World, there were no horses or cattle for farming.
所有的工作都必须手工完成。 All the work had to be done by hand.
唯一的大型家畜是大羊驼， The only large domestic animal was the llama, but these docile creatures
但这些温顺的动物从来没有拉过犁。 have never been harnessed to a plough.
印加人非常擅长种植土豆和玉米， The Incas were very skilled at growing potatoes and corn,
由于地理原因，印加人的生产能力远不如欧洲。 but because of their geography, they could never be as productive as European farmers.
马给了欧洲人另一个巨大的优势， Horses gave Europeans another massive advantage,
他们可以骑马。 they could be ridden.
对印加人来说，皮萨罗的征服者 To the Incas, the sight of Pizarro's conquistadors
踏过他们的土地很奇特。 passing through their land is extraordinary.
他们以前从未见过有动物载人。 They've never seen people carried by their animals before.
有些人认为他们是神，这些长相怪异的人， Some think they are gods, these strange-looking men,
半人半兽。 part human, part beast.
在印加人看来如此奇特的马 The horses that seemed so exotic to the Incas
在西班牙已4000年了。 had already been used in Spain for 4,000 years.
在没有机动化交通的时代， In an age before motorized transport,
马匹可载人运动， they allowed people to be mobile,
控制自己的土地。 and control their land.
当哈维尔·马丁不放牛时，他展示了传统的骑术。 When Javier Martin is not herding cattle, he gives displays of traditional horsemanship.
这种骑术被称为吉美塔 This style of riding is known as jimeta.
重点是控制和操控性， The emphasis is on control and maneuverability,
用弯曲的膝盖夹住马的两侧， using bent knees to grip the sides of the horse,
只有单手握缰绳。 and only one hand on the reins.
与中世纪骑士更为正式的风格截然不同。 Very different from the more formal style of medieval knights.
到了16世纪， By the 16th century,
吉梅塔骑术已成为西班牙骑兵的主导风格。 the jimeta way of riding had become the dominant style of the Spanish cavalry.
这就是征服者骑马的方式。 This is how the conquistadors would have ridden their horses.
一匹大动物被人控制的惊人表现， It's an amazing display of a big animal being controlled by a person,
精确控制、停止、启步和转弯。 precise control, stopping and starting and turning.
哈维尔告诉我，他从五岁起就开始骑马， Javier told me that he has been riding since he was five years old,
当我看这个的时候， and when I watched this,
我对征服者发源地方有了更好的了解。 I have a better understanding where the conquistadors were coming from.
他们是这些骑术的大师， They were masters of these techniques,
在牧牛中学会了这些技艺， and they learned these techniques for working with bulls,
看得出，该技术也能很好地用于军事， but the techniques were also good in a military context as well,
这种操控技术能你在开阔地冲击敌人。 and I can see that this control would let you ride down people in the open.
以前从来没见过马的人， People who had never seen horses before
看到这一切绝对都会被吓傻的。 would have been absolutely terrified watching this.
这种奇怪又可怕的动物， It would be strange and frightening,
甚至其中一个正朝你冲过来， and that's even before one of these animals is rushing towards you,
就要撞倒你，就要把刺死你。 riding you down, about to lance you and kill you.
神一般的陌生人骑着四足动物的消息， News of the godlike strangers on their four-legged animals
由皇家信使传给了印加皇帝。 is taken by royal messenger to the emperor of the Incas,
驻扎在秘鲁北部的卡哈马卡山谷， who's camped in the valley of Cajamarca in northern Peru,
那里有八万人的守卫军队。 guarded by an army of 80,000 men.
阿塔哈尔帕被尊为永生神，是太阳之子。 Ataxalpa is revered as a living god, a son of the sun itself.
他在卡哈马卡参加宗教静修， He's in Cajamarca on a religious retreat,
以答谢最近一系列的军事胜利。 giving thanks for a series of recent military triumphs.
当他听说西班牙人到来时， When he hears about the progress of the Spaniards,
他选择不杀他们。 he chooses not to have them killed.
相反，他发回了一个信息。 Instead, he sends back a message.
他邀请他们尽快加入卡哈马卡。 He invites them to join him in Cajamarca, as quickly as possible.
阿塔哈尔帕希望西班牙人来到卡哈马卡，落入陷阱， Ataxalpa wanted the Spaniards to come to Cajamarca and enter into a trap,
并要确保他们会这样； and to be sure that they would do so;
和他们玩心理游戏，送礼物，请他们来。 he played like a psychological game with them, sending presents, asking them to come.
阿塔哈尔帕知道西班牙人不是神 Ataxalpa knew that the Spaniards were not gods.
消息说他们脸上戴着羊毛 The intelligence reports speak of people wearing wool on their faces,
像羔羊或羊驼，他们就像动物 like a lamb or like an alpaca, they're just like an animal.
他们从一处走到另一处，头上顶着小锅 Then they went from one place to the other wearing on top of their heads
一个从来没用过做饭的小锅。 a little pot that has never been used for cooking.
你带着锅走路一定是疯了， You need to be crazy to walk with a pot,
你一定无可救药了，你到了营地， but you must be beyond salvation if you arrive to a camp
却不用那个锅做饭。 and you don't use that pot to cook.
阿塔哈尔帕认为这些是亚人类。 Ataxalpa had an idea that these were sub-humans.
几个骑兵和百十来个的西班牙人能对强大的印加有影响？ What could a few horsemen and a hundred or so Spaniards do to the powerful Inca?
几乎毫无影响。 Virtually nothing.
但阿塔哈尔帕的探子并没有意识到 But Ataxalpa's spies don't realize that the Spanish
西班牙人拥有世界上最好的武器。 are armed with some of the best weapons in the world.
在征服者时代，西班牙拥有欧洲最强大的军队， At the time of the conquistadors, Spain had the biggest army in Europe,
由帝国首都托莱多指挥。 orchestrated from the imperial capital, Toledo.
700多年来，西班牙人一直在战斗， For more than 700 years the Spaniards had been at war,
与摩尔人和其他欧洲军队作战。 fighting against the Moors and other European armies.
在欧洲进行着军备竞赛。 There was an arms race in Europe.
为了生存，西班牙人需要跟上最新的武器技术。 To survive, the Spaniards needed to keep up with the latest in weapons technology.
到了15世纪30年代，雅各布斯步枪是西班牙最重要的武库。 By the 1530s, the Jacobus was an important part of the Spanish arsenal.
火药最初来自中国， Gunpowder had originally come from China,
但阿拉伯人首先把它用于武器。 but its use as a weapon was pioneered by the Arabs.
在欧洲人手中，枪支变得更轻便， In European hands, guns became lighter and more portable,
枪支在战场上首次由步兵使用。 and were used for the first time by foot soldiers on the battlefield.
雅各布斯步枪很原始，但它将改变战争的面貌。 The Jacobus was still a crude weapon, but would go on to change the face of warfare.
对我们现代人来说，这把枪似乎毫无用处， To us, moderns, this gun doesn't seem useful for anything,
就像个笑话。 it's like a joke.
很难瞄准，重新装填时间长， Its aim is terrible, it takes a long time to reload,
当枪手重新装弹时，剑客能近身杀了他， and while the shooter's reloading it a swordsman would come in and kill him,
但印加人还没发展到这一步，甚至这把枪， but the Incas hadn't even gotten this far, and even this gun,
它的声音，气味，烟雾， with its sound and with the smell and with the smoke
每隔一段时间，就有人被打死， and with every now and then a person that it manages to kill,
对一个从未见过的人来说非常恐怖， would have been terrifying to someone who had never seen this before.
这就是1532年呈现出的震惊和敬畏 This would have been shock and awe, 1532 style.
尽管很吓人，火药技术仍处于初级阶段。 For all its bluster, the technology of gunpowder was still in its infancy.
征服者的真正力量在于钢铁的生产。 The real power of the conquistadors lay elsewhere, with the production of steel.
托莱多有世界上最好的铸剑师。 Toledo had some of the best sword smiths in the world.
但是为什么这里的人们能够制造致命的钢铁武器， But why were people here able to craft deadly steel weapons,
而印加人仍然在制造简单的青铜工具呢？ while the Incas were still making simple bronze tools?
欧洲人并没有天生的聪明才智 There was nothing innately brilliant about Europeans themselves
使他们能够制造出高质量的剑。 that allowed them to be the ones to make high quality swords.
和枪支一样，刀剑也是漫长试错的结果 Just as with guns, swords were the result of a long process of trial
欧洲以外早就开始了。 and error that began outside Europe.
7000年前在新月沃土就开始使用金属， People started working with metal in the Fertile Crescent 7,000 years ago,
由于欧洲地理位置靠近新月沃土， and because Europe is geographically close to the Fertile Crescent,
欧洲人继承了这种金属加工技术 Europeans inherited this metal technology.
但他们把这项技术提升到了一个新的水平。 But they took this technology on to a new level.
欧洲士兵需要更坚硬、更长、更锋利的剑。 European soldiers demanded stronger, longer, sharper swords.
这就是托莱多剑完成后的样子。 This is what a Toledo sword looks like when it's finished.
这把是模仿皮萨罗的佩剑。 This particular one is modeled on the sword that Pizarro carried.
这是件可怕的武器。 It's a fearsome weapon.
它既可以用来刺杀，也可以用来砍人， It's used for stabbing and it's also used for slashing,
很容易就能理解持剑武士 and I can easily understand how the person wielding the sword
在短时间内就能杀死数十人。 could kill dozens of people within a short time.
像这样的剑，剑杆， Swords like this, rapiers,
代表了非常复杂的金属加工技术的巅峰 represented a high point in a very sophisticated metalworking technology.
想想剑需要什么样的品质。 You think about what the qualities are that are needed in a sword.
首先，它必须足够坚硬， First of all, it has to be hard enough,
金属必须足够坚硬才能形成锋利的边缘， the metal has to be hard enough to take a sharp edge,
这就要求是含碳的铁锻造成钢， and that requires steel that is iron infused with carbon,
你在铁中加入的碳越多，金属就越坚硬。 and the more carbon you put into the iron, then the harder the metal is.
但是如果过硬， But if you make it too hard,
那么它很脆，这就不好，因为当你击中某人时， then it's brittle, and that's no good because as you hit somebody,
你的剑会折断， your sword would break,
所以需要有一定的柔韧性， and so you also need your sword to have a certain pliability,
有弯曲和回弹的能力。 an ability to bend and spring back into shape.
需要加热到一定温度，再浸入冷水中， And it's got by heating it to certain temperatures, plunging it into cold water,
经过大量的实验， immense amount of experimentation,
花了几个世纪才日臻成熟 it took centuries to get to the level of sophistication
得到这样细长、优雅、精致，致命的长剑。 where you could get something so long and elegant and fine, and deadly as the rapier.
这种剑有着超长的刀刃，作为决斗武器而开发， The rapier, with its extra long blade, was developed as a dueling weapon,
在文艺复兴时期的欧洲非常流行 but became so fashionable in Renaissance Europe;
成为有抱负绅士的首选佩剑 it was the sword of choice for any aspiring gentleman.
"剑"这词汇来源于西班牙语"Espara Ropera" The word rapier derives from the Spanish term "espara ropera"
意思就是礼仪佩剑 and that means dress sword.
在西班牙第一次看到， And for the first time in Spain,
人们穿着日常服装、便装， we start to see people wearing the sword with their everyday clothing,
在从事日常工作时佩剑。 their civilian dress, going about their everyday business.
中世纪没有这样。 They didn't do that in the Middle Ages.
这是16世纪的新事物，它宣告我来了， This is something new in the 16th century, and it's saying I have arrived,
我是绅士， I am a gentleman,
我的地位在上升， I am upwardly mobile,
我的祖先是来自中世纪的骑士。 and I claim ancestry from the knights of the Middle Ages.
这在很大程度上是征服者贪婪的象征。 It was very much a symbol of the conquistador's aspiring greed.
贪婪驱使他们度过所有艰难困苦， The thing that drove them through all their hardships,
对黄金的渴望驱使他们来到美洲， the thing that made them go to the Americas, was their lust for gold,
是对自我发展的渴望， their lust for self-advancement,
而这把剑绝对象征那种…… and the rapier absolutely symbolized
那种专横的贪婪。 that overbearing avarice.
1532年11月15日， On November 15th 1532,
皮萨罗的探险队进入卡哈马卡山谷。 Pizarro's band of adventurers entered the valley of Cajamarca.
他们被告知阿塔哈尔帕正在这里等他们。 They've been told that Ataxalpa is waiting for them here.
但他们没有准备好迎接他们的那一幕。 But they're not prepared for the sight that greets them.
在卡哈马卡镇以外的山丘上是印加帝国军队， In the hills beyond the town of Cajamarca is the imperial Inca army,
8万人全副武装。 80,000 men in full battle order.
征服者自己的日记见证了他们的第一印象。 The conquistadors' own journals bear witness to their first impressions.
他们的营地看起来像一座非常美丽的城市。 Their camp looked like a very beautiful city.
在那之前，我们从未见过印第安人这样的阵容，这让我们胆寒， We'd seen nothing like it in the Indies until then, and it scared us,
因为我们的人数如此少，如此深入腹地。 because we were so few and so deep in this land.
皮萨罗派了一队他最好的骑兵进入印加阵营的中心。 Pizzaro sends a party of his best horsemen into the heart of the Inca camp.
他们由德索托上尉领导
They are gambling that Ataxalpa will allow them to pass through the camp unharmed, 他们赌阿塔哈尔帕会允许他们安然无恙地穿过营地， They are led by Captain De Soto.
并同意和他们见面 and agree to meet them.
索托的来访有非常重要的心理目的； Soto's visit had a very important psychological purpose;
在他的人民面前恐吓印加皇帝。 to intimidate the Inca in front of his people.
用马挑战他。 Challenging him with the horse.
阿塔哈尔帕起初对索托的出现没有反应， Ataxalpa at first didn't react to Soto's presence,
好像没有人进入房间。 as if nobody had entered the room.
这匹马与印加皇帝对视， Once the, the horse comes eye to eye with the Inca,
印加皇帝仍保持冷静， the Inca is still calm,
显示马对他没有影响，接受索托挑战。 showing that the horse has no impact on him, calling Soto's bluff.
上尉走得很近， The captain advanced so close
马的鼻吸扰乱了印加皇帝的额头。 that the horse's nostrils disturbed the fringe of the Inca's forehead.
但印加皇帝从未晃动。 But the Inca never moved.
然后，在短暂的沉默之后，阿塔哈尔帕咆哮了。 And then, after a brief silence comes Ataxalpa's explosion.
他告诉他们，你们现在该付出代价了 He was telling them, the time has come for you to pay.
我理解是时间到了，是你们要付出生命代价的时候了。 I understand this as the time has come for you to pay with your lives.
索托怀着紧张和恐惧回去了 Soto I understand was nervous enough to come back with fear to the, the camp,
据我所知，西班牙人在极度的恐惧中度过了一个晚上 and as we know, the Spaniards spent the night before in extreme fear.
征服者在卡哈马卡镇扎营。 The conquistadors had made their camp in the town of Cajamarca.
其中的许多人确信他们正遭受灭顶之灾。 Many of them are now convinced they are facing oblivion.
168名士兵，距离其他西班牙人有1000英里之远， 168 soldiers, 1,000 miles from any other Spaniard,
要面对着8万印加人的军队。 facing an army of 80,000 Incas.
那天晚上我们几乎没睡，我们一直在在广场行走， Few of us slept that night. We kept walking the square,
从那里我们可以看到印第安军队的营火。 from where we could see the camp fires of the Indian army.
这是一个可怕的景象，就像一个星光灿烂的夜晚。 It was a fearful sight, like a brilliantly star-studded night.
皮萨罗和他最信任的军官们就如何对付阿塔哈尔帕展开了辩论。 Pizarro and his most trusted officers debate their options for how to deal with Ataxalpa.
一些人建议谨慎行事， Some advise caution,
这是过去成功的策略 It's a tactic that's worked successfully in the past.
皮萨罗去秘鲁的12年前，另一位着名的征服者埃尔南·科尔特斯 Twelve years before Pizarro went to Peru, another famous conquistador, Hernan Cortez,
去了墨西哥，遇到了另一个强大的文明： had gone to Mexico and encountered another formidable civilization:
阿兹特克人 the Aztecs.
他通过绑架阿兹特克领导人和 He conquered the country by kidnapping the Aztec leader
利用随之而来的混乱征服了这个国家 and exploiting the ensuing chaos.
科尔特斯的故事后来出版，成为畅销书， Cortez's story was later published and became a bestseller,
成了有意成为征服者的手册 a handbook for any would-be conquistador.
在西班牙北部萨拉曼卡大学的图书馆还能找到 It can still be found in the great library of Salamanca University in Northern Spain.
在个奇妙的图书馆 This wonderful library here
也可以看作是阴谋诡计的储藏库， can be thought of among other things as a repository of dirty tricks,
因为在这些书中记载了， because in these books are the accounts of what generals
将领们在过去几千年里， had been doing to other generals
在欧亚大陆各地征伐的战例， for thousands of years in the past and across much of Eurasia,
图书馆里有个着名的记录，记载征服墨西哥的过程 and here from this library we have a famous account of the conquest of Mexico
详细记录了科尔特斯对阿兹特克人的征伐及成效。 with all the details of what Cortez did to the Aztecs and what worked.
这是皮萨罗的榜样，提供了参考， That was a model for Pizarro to give him ideas
他知道要怎么针对印加人， what exactly to try out on the Incas,
而印加人没有文字，只有通过口口相传延续有限的知识， whereas the Incas without writing, had only local knowledge transmitted by oral memory,
与西班牙人的文字记录相比， and they were unsophisticated and naive
印加人是纯朴和天真的。 compared to the Spaniards because of writing.
但如果书籍如此有用，为什么印加人不能读或写呢？ But if books were so useful, why couldn't the Incas read or write?
独立发展出新的书写系统 To develop a new system of writing independently
是一个极其复杂的过程， is an extremely complex process,
在人类历史上很少发生 and has happened very rarely in human history.
它最早是在5000年前由拥有新月沃土的 It was first achieved by the Sumerian people of the Fertile Crescent
苏美尔人首次实现的。 at least 5,000 years ago.
他们开创了一套复杂符号系统，被称为楔形文字 They pioneered an elaborate system of symbols called cuneiform,
可能是记录农业交易的一种方式。 possibly as a way of recording farming transactions.
从那以后，几乎欧亚的所有书面语言 Ever since, almost every other written language of Europe and Asia has copied,
都受楔形文字基础的复制、改编或启发。 adapted or simply been inspired by the basics of cuneiform.
纸张、墨水和活字印刷术的发明 The spread of writing was helped enormously by the invention of paper,
极大地促进了文字的传播， ink and moveable type,
这些发明都来自欧洲以外的地方， innovations that all came from outside Europe
但在中世纪被欧洲人利用， but were seized upon by Europeans in the Middle Ages
产生了知识的最终传播者： to produce the ultimate transmitter of knowledge:
印刷机 the printing press.
书面文字现在可以迅速准确地传遍欧洲和亚洲。 The written word could now spread quickly and accurately across Europe and Asia.
没有写作的发展，是不可能发展出现代世界。 The modern world would be impossible without the development of writing.
但世界还有另一部分 But there's another part of the world
独立发明出了一种新的书写系统。 where a new system of writing was invented independently.
在至少2500年前的墨西哥南部， In Southern Mexico, at least 2,500 years ago,
当地人发展了一种玛雅文字， native people developed a way of working with symbols
一种用符号记录的模式。 that involved into the Mayan script.
但如果玛雅人有文字， But if the Maya had writing,
为什么不向南传播到安第斯山脉，帮助印加人识字？ why didn't it spread south to the Andes and help the Incas become literate?
戴蒙德认为，答案在于大陆的形状 For Diamond, the answer lies in the shape of the continents.
这里是欧洲和亚洲组成的欧亚大陆， Here were Europe and Asia forming the continent of Eurasia,
一个巨大的大陆， a giant continent
但它从东向西伸展，从北向南变窄。 but it's stretched out from east to west, and narrows from north to south.
而美洲大陆南北长，东西窄， The American continent is long from north to south, narrow from east to west,
在巴拿马非常狭窄，在那里不到100英里。 very narrow at Panama where it narrows down to less than 100 miles.
这两个大陆的长度大致相同，大约为8000英里， The two continents are of the same lengths, about 8,000 miles in maximum dimensions,
不过欧亚大陆是从东到西为8000英里， but Eurasia is 8,000 miles from east to west,
美洲是从北到南为8000英里， and the Americas are 8,000 miles from north to south,
就好像这些大陆彼此旋转了90度。 it's as if these continents were rotated 90 degrees of each other.
戴蒙德已阐明，农作物和动物 Diamond has already shown that crops and animals
可以轻易地在欧亚大陆的东西方向传播。 could spread easily east and west across Eurasia.
因为同一纬度会享有相同的日长， Because places the same latitude automatically share the same day length
具有相似的气候和植被。 and a similar climate and vegetation.
但美洲大陆与欧亚大陆相反。 But the American continents were the opposite of Eurasia.
从美洲一端到另一端的旅程是南北向， A journey from one end of the Americas to the other is a journey from north to south,
经历不同的日长、不同的气候带 a journey through different day lengths, different climate zones,
以及截然不同的植被。 and dramatically different vegetation.
这些基本差异阻碍了农作物和动物以及人和思想， These basic differences hindered the spread of crops and animals as well as people,
还有技术的传播。 ideas and technologies.
安第斯山脉的人长期与世隔绝， The people of the Andes were chronically isolated,
没有机会获得美洲其他地方的文字 without access to writing or almost any other innovation
或其他创新。 from elsewhere in the Americas.
相比之下，皮萨罗和他的部下有地理上的优势。 By contrast, Pizarro and his men were geographically blessed.
作为西班牙人，他们享受着技术和思想带来的好处， As Spaniards, they enjoyed the benefit of technologies
这些技术和思想很容易在欧亚大陆传播开来。 and ideas that had spread easily across Eurasia.
1532年的事件显然受到了深层次原因的影响， The events of 1532 were clearly influenced by deep causes,
西班牙人或印加人都不能够控制这些因素。 over which no individual Spaniard or Inca had any control.
大陆的形状，动植物的分布， The shape of the continents, the distribution of plants and animals,
欧亚科技的传播，这些都是地理学的事实， the spread of Eurasian technology, these were facts of geography,
在几乎每一个转折点上， and at almost every turn of the drama,
地理上更偏向于欧洲人。 geography was tilted in favor of the Europeans.
1532年11月16日上午 It's the morning of November 16th, 1532.
阿塔哈尔帕同意在卡哈马卡镇会见西班牙人 Ataxalpa has agreed to meet the Spaniards in the town of Cajamarca,
他的随从走在他前面 and sends his entourage ahead of him.
但他做出了一个致命的决定：士兵不应该携带武器 But he makes a fateful decision: that his soldiers should not carry weapons.
印第安人是音乐家和舞蹈演员。 The Indians were musicians and dancers.
他们是士兵，但没有带武器。 They were soldiers, but unarmed.
为什么阿塔哈尔帕会让士兵不装备武器？ Why would Ataxalpa unarm his own soldiers?
为什么呢，因为他在过节，他在庆祝。 Why, because he was in the festivity, he was celebrating.
他不是去战斗 He wasn't going to war.
他要去参加一个庆祝活动，以便全体人民都能看到 He was going for a celebration so that the whole people could see
那些所谓的神是如何在恐惧中逃跑的。 how the alleged gods would run away in fear.
事实上，有些人相信西班牙人是神， The fact that some people believed that the Spaniards
能让阿塔哈尔帕发挥得更好。 were gods would play better in the hands of Ataxalpa's purpose.
如果我知道他们不是神，我打败了神， If I know they are not gods and I defeat the gods,
那么当然大家都会认可我。 then of course everybody will be with me.
但是如果我不用武力击败了众神呢？ But what if I defeat the gods with no show of force at all?
那我就超越了神 Then I am beyond the gods.
阿塔哈尔帕和部下进入卡哈马卡时，西班牙人正躲在暗处等待 While Ataxalpa and his men enter Cajamarca, the Spaniards are waiting, hidden from view.
有五六千人，他们身后是阿塔哈尔帕， There were five or 6,000 men and behind them,
坐在一辆非常精致的轿子上， the figure of Ataxalpa, seated in a very fine litter,
上面衬托有羽毛，点缀着金银。 lined with feathers and embellished with gold and silver.
我们中的很多人都被恐惧吓坏了 Many of us pissed ourselves out of sheer terror.
广场上满是阿塔哈尔帕的人， The square is filed with Ataxalpa's people,
看不到一个西班牙人。 but there's, there's not one Spaniard at sight.
阿塔哈尔帕问，“这些狗在哪里？” Ataxalpa asks, 'Where are these dogs?'
他的右相回答说， One of his right hands answers,
他们因为害怕宏伟的印加而逃跑了 'They have run away because they are afraid of magnificent Inca'
当然，全场的人都听到了，相信事情就是这样。 Of course the whole crowd listened to this and believed that this was the case.
我以基督之名来到你面前 I come before you in the name of Christianity...
皮萨罗派出牧师去面对阿塔哈尔帕 Pizarro sends out his priest to confront Ataxalpa.
向你展示真理的道路 ...to show you the path of truth
征服者有义务在诉诸暴力之前 The conquistadors are obliged to try and convert native people
设法改变当地人的信仰。 before any resort to violence.
你在说什么，毛脸？ What are you talking about hair face?
我是太阳之子！ I am the Son of the Sun!
我有权管理我的臣民 I have the right to govern my people
你何德何能这样对我说话？ What right do you have to speak to me in this way?
我的权威来自上帝 My authority comes from The Lord
他的话写在这本书上 His Word is written in this book
这就是你的力量？ This is your power?
阿塔哈尔帕以前从未见过书，他不知道该怎么办 He doesn't know what to do with it. Ataxalpa has never seen a book before.
它毫无价值 It's worthless
我看不到你说的这些话 I don't hear the word you speak of
你怎么敢，印第安狗！ How dare you, Indian dog!
出来，西班牙人！ Come out, Spaniards!
消灭这些不尊重上帝的狗 Destroy these dogs who don't respect things of God!
在那一刻，人群毫无准备， At that moment, with the crowd absolutely unprepared,
战马进来了。 the horses come.
一片恐慌 There was massive panic.
想象一下卡哈马卡的场景 Just imagine the scene in Cajamarca.
印加人以前没有见过马，这些马也不是普通的马， The Incas hadn't seen horses before, and these aren't ordinary horses,
这些是西班牙马，凶猛，巨大，是战马。 these are Spanish horses, fierce, big, fighting horses.
他们可以冲入人群， They could get in amongst men,
他们可以践踏人群，是绝佳的战斗平台 they would trample men and they made the most excellent platform.
在马身上，你可以左冲右刺， From the horse, you could stab down to the left, stab down to the right,
你可以砍，你可以切，任由劈砍 you could cut, you could scythe, hacking all about you.
如果印加人知道对付骑兵要站稳脚跟， If only the Incas had known that what you had to do against cavalry was stand firm,
那就没事了，他们的人数占优，但他们不知道 then they'd have been alright, they had superior numbers, but they didn't know that.
他们慌不择路，队伍散乱， They fled, they broke ranks,
然后骑兵就可以冲进他们中间，砍倒他们。 and then the horsemen could get in amongst them and they cut them down.
印加人有个叫韦拉卡的神， There was an Inca god called Viracoxa,
他是一个白人，他是雷神， and he was a white man, and he was the god of thunder,
他们认为这些带鸟铳的人 and they thought these men with their aquabuses
正是韦拉卡的化身。 were the very incarnation of Viracoxa.
印加皇帝阿塔哈尔帕坐在轿子里，由轿夫扛着 The Inca Ataxalpa was in his litter, held by his carriers.
一有机会，西班牙人就去追轿子 As soon as they were able to do it, the Spaniards went after the litter.
并杀死轿夫 And they started killing the carriers.
一个轿夫倒下，马上就有另一个取代他 One carrier would fall, and another one would replace him.
直到悲剧将近，将近结束时 Only at the very, very, very end of the tragedy,
轿子才开始晃动，因为没有更多的轿夫了。 the litter started to move because there were no more carriers left.
当轿子落下时，皮萨罗亲自抓住了阿塔哈尔帕。 As the litter falls, Pizarro himself captures Ataxalpa.
完美实现了他的计划 His plan has worked to perfection.
阿塔哈尔帕被带到卡哈马卡皇家住所的临时监狱 Ataxalpa is taken to a makeshift prison in the royal quarters at Cajamarca.
他以为我们会杀了他，但我们告诉他，不会。 He thought we were going to kill him, but we told him, no.
基督徒只在激战中杀人。 Christians only kill in the heat of the battle.
外面，成千上万的印加人死了 Outside, thousands of Incas are dead.
其余的军队已撤退到山上 The rest of the army has retreated to the hills.
尽管在数量上差距悬殊，西班牙的战马 In spite of a massive imbalance in number, Spanish horses,
利剑和战略已被证明是决定性的。 swords and strategy have proved decisive.
但西班牙人还有一件武器，连他们自己都不知道 But the Spaniards possessed another weapon they didn't even know they had,
一种大杀器正在悄无声息地杀过来 a weapon of mass destruction that had marched invisibly ahead of them.
今天，对抗传染病的战争在英格兰南部的 Today, the war against infectious disease is waged at biological research centers
波尔顿这样的生物研究中心展开。 like Porton Down in Southern England.
他们在此生产疫苗以对抗世界上最致命的病毒 They produce vaccines here against the world's deadliest viruses.
在16世纪，没有疫苗， In the 16th century there were no vaccines,
也没有办法预防传染病的蔓延。 and there was no protection from the rampant spread of infectious disease.
皮萨罗抵达卡哈马卡的12年前，一艘西班牙船只驶往墨西哥 Twelve years before Pizarro arrived at Cajamarca, a Spanish ship sailed to Mexico.
在船上，一个奴隶刚开始生病发烧 On board, one of the slaves was suffering from the first signs of a fever.
他是第一个给美洲大陆带来致命疾病的人 He was the first person to bring a deadly disease to the American mainland.
这种疾病是天花 The disease was smallpox.
几周内，天花病毒将从单一来源传播， Within weeks, the smallpox virus would spread from a single source
感染成千上万的美洲原住民 to infect thousands of native Americans.
天花在你吸入颗粒物时进入体内， Smallpox gets into the body when you breathe in the particles,
它们附着在你的喉咙后部和肺的内部 and they attach themselves to the back of your throat and the inside of your lungs.
大约在两到三天发病，典型的皮疹就出现了， About two to three days into the illness, then the classic rash appears,
最坏时会遍布全身，长满丘疹， and in its worst forms, this takes over the whole of the body
然后长出巨大的水泡，布满整个皮肤， with initially pimples and then enormous blisters until the whole of the skin,
从手和脸开始， starting with the hands and the face and then
然后向下蔓延到全身， spreading down to cover the rest of the body,
全身都是天花水泡 is taken over by the smallpox blisters.
从这时起，病人有极强的传染性。 From that time on, the patient is highly infectious.
因为每一个水泡都充满了天花颗粒， Because each of those blisters is packed full of smallpox particles,
如果水泡破裂，液体流出， then if you burst a blister, fluid will come out
大量病毒就扩散开来 and large numbers of viruses will be spilt onto whatever it touches.
十到十二天后，他的朋友会生病 Ten to twelve days later, his friends would be taken ill,
再十到十二天后，他们的朋友也会生病 and then ten to twelve days after that, their friends.
这种速度意味着疾病呈指数级传播。 That kind of rate means the disease spreads exponentially.
增长速度越来越快，越来越多的人被感染， Its rate of increase gets bigger and bigger and bigger the more people are infected,
直到最后，它将造成巨大的人口破坏。 until eventually it will cause tremendous devastation in the population.
新大陆的第一次天花流行席卷了中美洲， The first smallpox epidemic of the New World swept through Central America
并蔓延到印加帝国 and reached the Inca Empire.
无论疾病到哪里，病毒都会毁灭当地居民， Wherever it went, the virus decimated native populations,
使他们更容易成为西班牙征服的猎物 making them easier prey for Spanish conquest.
但为什么病毒这么一边倒？ But why were the germs so one-sided?
为什么西班牙人把疾病传染给印加人， Why did the Spaniards pass their diseases onto the Incas,
而不是反过来？ and not the other way around?
这是皮萨罗的秘密武器； This is Pizarro's secret weapon;
猪和牛，绵羊和山羊，家畜。 pigs and cows, sheep and goats, domestic animals.
别忘了皮萨罗是个猪倌。 Remember that Pizarro was a swineherd.
他在这样的棚屋里长大，与家畜亲密接触， He grew up in huts like this, in intimate contact with domestic animals,
吸入家畜的病菌，喝带菌的牛奶， breathing in their germs, drinking the germs in their milk,
从家畜的病菌进化而来的， and it was from the germs of domestic animals
是对人类致命的传染病 that the killer diseases of humans evolved,
比如流感就是起源于猪，并通过鸡鸭传播。 for example our 'Flu evolved from a disease of pigs transmitted via chickens and ducks.
麻疹来自牛；天花来自家畜， We acquired measles from cattle; we acquired smallpox from domestic animals,
这些人类最可怕的杀手是我们与心爱的家畜 so that these worst killers of human people were a legacy of 10,000 years of contact
接触一万年后留下的遗产 with our beloved domestic animals.
在中世纪， During the Middle Ages,
传染病席卷欧洲，夺去了数百万人的生命 infectious diseases swept through Europe and claimed millions of lives.
矛盾的是，反复的流行病反而使欧洲人更具适应能力 But paradoxically, repeated epidemics made Europeans more resilient.
每次爆发， In each outbreak,
总有一些人在基因上 there were always some people
能更好地抵抗病毒 who were genetically better able to fight off the virus.
这些人就能幸存，并繁育后代 These people were more likely to survive and have children.
在这个过程中，会遗传抗病性 In the process, they'd pass on their genetic resistance.
几个世纪以来，整个人口获得了 Over centuries, whole populations acquired
一定程度的保护，以防止天花等疾病的扩散， some degree of protection against the spread of diseases like smallpox
这是印加人从未获得的保护。 a protection the Incas never had.
一旦天花被带到新大陆， Once smallpox was taken to the New World,
在新大陆从来没有人得过这样的疾病， nobody in the New World had ever seen a disease like this before,
所以易感人群要大得多。 so the number of people who were susceptible was much greater.
没有自然免疫力，因此， There was no natural immunity, and so therefore the number of people
感染疾病然后传播的人数， who could both contract the disease and then spread it,
以及感染后再扩散，受感染的人数要高得多 and the number of people to receive it once it had spread, was much higher.
更多的人会死， More people would die,
更多的人会在第一时间被感染。 and more people would be susceptible to catch it in the first place.
它将迅速蔓延到整个人口中， It would spread rapidly throughout the population,
死亡人数也是巨大的 and the death toll would be enormous.
为什么美洲原住民以前没有遇到过天花？ Why hadn't Native Americans encountered smallpox before?
为什么他们没有致命疾病传给西班牙人呢？ And why didn't they have any deadly diseases of their own to pass on to the Spaniards?
只是因为他们和家畜没有同样的接触史。 It's simply because they didn't have the same history of contact with farm animals.
印加人有羊驼，但羊驼不像欧洲的牛羊。 The Incas had llamas, but llamas aren't like European cows and sheep.
它们没有挤奶，也没有大群饲养， They're not milked, they're not kept in large herds,
也没有住在人类旁边的谷仓和棚屋里。 and they don't live in barns and huts alongside humans.
羊驼和人类之间没有明显的细菌交换。 There was no significant exchange of germs between llamas and people.
戴蒙德论点的关键 The key to Diamond's argument
是世界各地家畜的分布 is the distribution of farm animals around the world.
除了羊驼， Aside from the llama,
所有的大型家畜都原产于欧亚大陆和北非 all the large farm animals were native to Eurasia and North Africa.
在北美、撒哈拉以南非洲或澳大利亚，从来没有驯化过 None was ever domesticated in North America, Sub-Saharan Africa, or Australia.
结果是， As a result,
最严重的传染病也起源于欧亚大陆和北非， the worst epidemic diseases were also native to Eurasia and North Africa,
然后传播到世界各地，产生致命的影响。 and were then spread around the world with deadly effect.
关于西班牙征服新大陆的过程中 There's been a long debate about the number of indigenous people
死去土着的数量，人们争论了很久。 who died in the Spanish conquest of the New World.
一些学者认为，可能有2000万美洲原住民， Some scholars think there may have been a population of 20 million Native Americans,
其中绝大多数，也许95%是死于旧大陆的疾病。 and the vast majority, perhaps 95%, were killed by Old World diseases.
一个原住民几乎灭绝的大陆。 A continent virtually emptied of its people.
经历被俘后的最初震惊，阿塔哈尔帕成为合作囚犯。 After the initial shock of his capture, Ataxalpa became a cooperative prisoner.
他学会了说西班牙语，还和看守下棋。 He learned to speak Spanish, and play chess with his captors.
西班牙人意识到他活着比死更有用。 The Spaniards realized he was more useful to them alive than dead.
他被允许在监狱里重建宫庭。 He was allowed to re-establish his court in prison,
只要他命令臣民接受西班牙的统治， as long as he ordered his people to accept Spanish rule.
他还命令他们融化大量的宝藏。 He also ordered them to melt down a vast amount of treasure.
皮萨罗向阿塔哈尔帕许诺，黄金以换取自由 Pizarro had promised Ataxalpa his freedom in return for the gold.
事实证明这是一个空头承诺。 It proved to be an empty promise.
交出了20吨金银后， Having handed over 20 tons of gold and silver,
阿塔哈尔帕再有用了。 Ataxalpa was no longer useful to his captors.
他被绞死，在同一个广场上， He was garrotted to death, in the same square where so many of his followers
他的众多追随者在八个月前被屠杀 had been slaughtered eight months earlier.
随着阿塔哈尔帕的死亡，征服者继续殖民秘鲁的剩余地区。 With Ataxalpa dead, the conquistadors went on to colonize the rest of Peru.
依靠他们的枪炮、病菌和钢铁的力量 Relying on the power of their guns, germs and steel.
殖民地的黄金被带回西班牙南部的塞维利亚 Gold from the Spanish colonies was brought back to Seville in Southern Spain.
今天瓜多克雷塔河不再忙碌，但在16世纪， There's little activity in the Guadocreata River today, but in the 16th century,
这里是世界上最重要、最繁忙的港口之一。 this was among the most important, busiest ports in the world.
源源不断的从美洲运来财宝的船只 A steady fl ow of ships carrying treasure from the Americas helped Spain
帮助西班牙成为地球上最富有的国家之一 become one of the richest nations on earth.
征服者永远地改变了 The conquistadors had changed forever
新旧大陆间的关系。 the relationship between Old World and New.
我来西班牙是想解答一个问题， I came to Spain to answer a question,
为什么皮萨罗和他的部下征服了印加人，而不是反过来呢？ why did Pizarro and his men conquer the Incas instead of the other way around?
有一个完整的神话说，征服和欧洲扩张是因为 There's a whole mythology that that conquest and the European expansion in general
欧洲人特别勇敢、大胆、 resulted from Europeans themselves
或聪明、有创造力的结果， being especially brave or bold or inventive or smart,
但答案却与欧洲个人的素质无关 but the answers turn out to have nothing to do with any personal qualities of Europeans.
是的，皮萨罗和他的人很勇敢，但是印加人也不缺 Yeah, Pizarro and his men were brave, but there were plenty of brave Incas.
相反，欧洲人是偶然的征服者。 Instead, Europeans were accidental conquerors.
凭借地理位置和历史， By virtue of their geographic location and history,
他们是第一批获得枪支、病菌和钢铁的人。 they were the first people to acquire guns, germs and steel.
到19世纪末，欧洲列强的征服已不限于美洲， By the end of the 19th century, European powers had ventured down
殖民非洲、澳大利亚和亚洲大部分地区。 the Americas and colonized Africa, Australia and much of Asia.
从卡哈马卡开始的进程已经得出了合乎逻辑的结论。 The process that began at Cajamarca had reached its logical conclusion.
欧洲的枪炮、病菌和钢铁正在重塑世界 European guns, germs and steel were reshaping the world.
Sunpiny 翻译